'I Have Always Been Fascinated by Deciphering: Reading Texts That No One in the Modern World Had Ever Read Before'
The deciphering of a recently discovered inscription at the Iraqi archaeological site of Tell Dehaila has led to a major breakthrough: the settlement was inhabited during the New Babylonian period, from the eighth to the sixth centuries BC, extending its known lifespan by more than a thousand years compared to earlier estimates. Ilya Arkhipov, Deputy Director and Associate Professor at the Institute for Oriental and Classical Studies of the HSE Faculty of Humanities, spoke to the HSE News Service about the Russian–Iraqi expedition, his passion for antiquity, and the teaching of ancient languages and Oriental history at HSE University.
Ilya Arkhipov
— When did the Iraqi–Russian expedition begin its work?
— It has been undertaken annually since 2019. Today, I will speak about the excavations at Tell Dehaila, a settlement in southern Iraq whose original ancient name remains unknown. The nearest modern city is Nasiriyah, located 370 km southeast of Baghdad. It is a multidisciplinary joint expedition conducted together with Iraqi scholars and led by Alexei Yankowski-Diakonoff, a researcher at the Centre of Archaeology of the Pre-Islamic East at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Researchers from various institutions take part in the mission, and I represent HSE University as an epigrapher. I first visited the site in 2021 to familiarise myself with it, and now, following the discovery of the first inscription, I have begun working with the texts.
The Russian participants in the expedition include the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IOS RAS), the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Centre of Ancient and Oriental Archaeology at the HSE University Institute for Oriental and Classical Studies, the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and Yaroslav-the-Wise Novgorod State University.
— What aspect of this research project would you consider the most important?
— I would start by emphasising its symbolic significance: this is the first Russian expedition to Iraq in the post-Soviet period, and it is crucial for strengthening academic and cultural ties with the country. Modern archaeology is a full-fledged industry that requires substantial funding and a wide range of specialists. During the first seasons, various surveys were conducted (including aerial photography) and test pits were excavated. In fact, large-scale excavations have only just begun. It is a fairly large settlement—51 hectares, almost twice the area of the Moscow Kremlin (27.7 hectares—Ed.). Its layout has already been mapped, and work has begun on clearing streets and excavating individual houses. A tablet was discovered in one of the houses, and I was the one who deciphered it.
— What is the significance of the tablet recently found in Tell Dehail?
— First of all, it is the first cuneiform text discovered by Russian archaeologists in the Ancient Near East in the strict sense of the term—in the very heart of Sumero-Akkadian culture. Secondly, tablets are much easier to date than most other artifacts. It turned out that the text was written in the New Babylonian dialect of the Akkadian language. Previously, based on the ceramics discovered, the site had been dated to the Old Babylonian period (18th–16th centuries BC). However, the Russian expedition uncovered later artifacts—such as ceramics and camel figurines—which suggested that the city might have continued to exist into the New Babylonian period, from the 10th to the sixth century BC (domesticated camels appeared in Mesopotamia around the turn of the second and first millennia BC). Still, the scale of the settlement during this later period remained unclear. Now we can say with confidence that the site was inhabited not only in the Old Babylonian period but also in the New Babylonian era.
— What evidence supports this conclusion?
— The tablet’s palaeography—that is, the shapes of the characters—as well as its spelling and standard formulaic structure confirm that both the author and the recipient of the letter lived during the New Babylonian period.
In addition, both personal names are typically New Babylonian. This provides a preliminary dating to the eighth–sixth centuries BC, while further study will help determine more precisely when the letter was written.
— Are you studying a part of ancient Mesopotamia often referred to as one of the cradles of human civilization?
— Yes, this is southern Iraq, a region that was once called Sumer, later became the southern part of Babylonia, and subsequently was known as the Sealand. All of these were states of the Sumero-Akkadian culture, but our focus is on a later period than the emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia: the time of Homer, King Nebuchadnezzar, and some books of the Old Testament.
— Is it now clear who wrote the inscription and to whom the letter was addressed?
— Only their names are known. As is often the case with epigraphic finds, the tablet is damaged. Only the lines containing the address—a letter from Balassu to Nabu-etir—and the greeting, 'I wish well-being to my master,' have survived. We do not yet know who they were. The recipient was probably the owner of the house, but to learn more about these individuals, the tablet needs to be dated more precisely, compared with data from other cities, and, ideally, more tablets will be found at the Tell Dehaila site. This is likely, as cuneiform texts are rarely discovered in isolation.
—Which state was the settlement currently being excavated by Russian and Iraqi archaeologists part of?
— The settlement existed for more than a thousand years, perhaps intermittently. If we refer to the 18th–16th centuries BC, it would have been part of either Babylonia or the Sealand. If we are talking about the eighth–sixth centuries BC, it could have been part of the Neo-Babylonian kingdom, an independent settlement, or a settlement partially controlled by Assyria.
— What do we know about this ancient state now? Can we say that the artifact found by archaeologists significantly changes our understanding of this state and the duration of its existence?
— The key is to date the text more precisely; only then will we understand which state it belonged to. As long as the dating carries a potential error of two centuries, we cannot speak with certainty about the settlement’s history. What we do know for sure is that it existed in the early centuries of the first millennium BC, featuring urban life with writing, a developed culture, infrastructure, and canals both within and beyond its boundaries.
— What are the future prospects for studying the archaeologists’ finds? Could they change our understanding of Mesopotamia?
— Archaeology is unpredictable, but we have high hopes for discoveries from both periods. Finds from the 18th–16th centuries BC could provide valuable insights into the political structure of Babylonia at that time. As for the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom, its history is still insufficiently studied, with most major archaeological discoveries dating back to before the Second World War. If well-preserved ceramic finds with stratigraphic context are uncovered, and even more so cuneiform tablets, they could teach us a great deal. More broadly, it is important that the site is studied comprehensively: how the settlement was organised, its layout, water supply, and the locations of public buildings, including temples. Such thorough studies have been rare in Mesopotamian archaeology.
— How did you come to study ancient languages?
— The tablet that was found can be read by only a few dozen specialists worldwide, and just a handful in Russia. I have always been fascinated by languages, both ancient and modern, but what drew me most was the challenge of deciphering: reading texts that no one in the modern world had ever read before. I enrolled in the Faculty of History at Moscow State University because it offered courses in Ancient Eastern languages, and it proved to be the right choice: it is impossible to understand an ancient text without also understanding the events and culture of the period it describes. To read texts in the original languages of the Ancient Near East, one must know the history. I have studied several ancient languages, including Classical Greek and Latin, and I have some knowledge of Ancient Egyptian, Sumerian, and Hurrian. However, I chose Akkadian for my specialisation.
— How actively do you use corpus linguistics methods in your research? Are they applicable in the study of ancient languages, in particular cuneiform?
— Yes, corpus linguistics is now widely applied, including to ancient languages. Texts are digitised, annotated, and lemmatised. For example, I participate in a project creating a corpus of Akkadian texts from the Old Babylonian period (www.archibab.fr). It becomes much easier to read and decipher texts when you can find parallels in the database. When I was working with the Tell Dehaila tablet, I used electronic corpora containing other texts from the Neo-Babylonian period. In studying ancient languages, we cannot ask a speaker about the meaning of a word or expression, which makes corpus linguistics even more important than for modern languages: the meaning of a lexeme or grammatical form can be determined only from its contexts in the corpus. For example, my colleagues and I are currently studying Akkadian grammar using corpora.
— What are your other plans for the future?
— Modern science is largely project-based. Each study has a specific goal, a deadline, and funding, and it is a collaborative effort. I almost always work alongside colleagues, which creates synergy: people complement each other and inspire new ideas. This applies both to experienced researchers and to students, who start with simple tasks but quickly progress to full-fledged scientific work.
I am currently involved in five projects, with the etymological dictionary of the Akkadian language taking priority. The project is led by Prof. Leonid Kogan, Head of the Laboratory for Middle Eastern and North African Languages and Culture. It is funded by the HSE Basic Research Programme, which also enables our students to participate. German scholars also contribute to this project through personal contacts. The first volume of the dictionary was published in 2020; the second is currently being released, and the third is in preparation. The complete dictionary will comprise ten volumes. The goal is to document the etymology of all known Akkadian words—both native Semitic words, which are important for comparative historical linguistics, and loanwords from other contemporary languages, which shed light on cultural contacts between different regions and peoples.
The second project involves the study of texts from the ancient Syrian city of Ebla, located near Aleppo. These texts date to the 24th century BC and are remarkable writing monuments that were ahead of their time. For example, the world’s first international treaties originate from Ebla, as do the earliest written laws in human history—600 years older than the laws of Hammurabi and 300 years older than the laws of Ur-Nammu, king of Ur. Eblaite scribes also compiled the oldest known dictionary, a Sumerian–Akkadian lexicon.
These texts are very difficult. They were discovered by Italian archaeologists in the 1970s, but in recent years their study has slowed somewhat, so we decided to take them up. Together with Leonid Kogan and our students, we are publishing and providing commentary on these texts in Russian and English as part of a Russian Science Foundation project. We hope this will allow the world to appreciate the unique achievements of the scribes of Ebla.
The third project is a collaboration with Prof. Sergey Loesov. Together, we are studying Akkadian grammar using corpus-based methods.
Another project involves publishing cuneiform texts from the 19th–17th centuries BC held in the Norwegian Martin Schøyen Collection. We are collaborating with our British colleague Andrew George; two volumes have already been published, and the third is in preparation.
Finally, together with our French colleagues, we are studying texts from the city of Mari (Syria), dating to the 18th century BC. This is a more historically focused project, concentrating on business and accounting documents—in other words, bookkeeping. We are trying to understand how economic accounting was organised in ancient times, and I hope we will publish a book on the subject.
— How are the languages and history of ancient Mesopotamia and other ancient cultures taught and studied at HSE University?
— Our institute, the IOCS, is unique in that it brings together all Oriental studies specialisations, from antiquity to the present. We offer 15 bachelor’s programmes covering all major regions and languages of the East. In addition, we provide courses in ancient studies, including the history and languages of ancient Greece and Rome. This versatility is thanks to Ilya Smirnov, the founder and current academic supervisor of the institute. Our focus is on the humanities, primarily languages, literature, and history, although the social sciences are also represented to some extent in our programmes. Next year, we plan to enrol students to the programmes 'The Arab World and the Christian East,' 'Iran and Central Asia,' and 'China: Language, Literature, History,' combining classical studies with modern perspectives. Specifically regarding ancient languages and cultures, these are studied in 'Assyriology' (which I also teach), 'Egyptology,' and 'Biblical Studies.' Enrolment in these disciplines is carried out every five years, the next one being in 2027 for 'Egyptology.' Akkadian, Ancient Egyptian, Hebrew and other ancient languages are taught in these programmes. In addition to languages, the programmes cover the history and culture of the Ancient Near East. Students in these programmes will be able to study and decipher texts like the Tell Dehaila tablet. They represent the next generation—those who assist us now and will eventually succeed us—and we involve them in research at our institute early on.
— Are these subjects popular among students?
— For disciplines such as Assyriology, enrolment is small, with only ten state-funded places available. Students in these programmes generally fall into two categories. Some deliberately choose a specific field or even transfer from other departments to study antiquity. There are very few universities in Russia where the history and languages of the Ancient Near East are studied in depth. Comparable programmes exist only at St Petersburg State University, while at Moscow State University and the Russian State University for the Humanities, such disciplines are offered as part of broader specialisations.
Other students enrol more or less by chance, often after not being admitted to another specialisation. Many of them, however, develop an interest in antiquity (though not all—there is some dropout, since learning multiple ancient languages along with history is challenging). For example, of the 11 students who graduated with a bachelor’s degree in Assyriology in 2024, eight went on to pursue a master’s at the IOCS and plan to continue to a PhD, even though not all had considered this path when they first enrolled. This shows that we have succeeded in fostering a genuine interest in research.
But I want to emphasise once again: our institute is large. In addition to antiquity, many programmes focus on the study of the modern East. We plan to recruit more frequently for the most in-demand programmes and to increase the number of state-funded places.
— To what extent are students involved in research?
— Research is a creative endeavour; it cannot be confined to a strict schedule. The mind continues to work on a research question even during rest or sleep, and ideas or associations can arise at any moment. Those who aim to achieve results dedicate a great deal of time—often not just eight hours a day, but closer to sixteen. This applies to both students and established scholars. Some students are willing to work this hard—they join us and remain committed to a career in research.
See also:
Through Heat and Sand: Egyptology Students’ Fieldwork in Egyptian Museums and Necropolises
Students of the Bachelor’s in Egyptology at the Institute for Oriental and Classical Studies, HSE Faculty of Humanities, spent ten days in the extreme conditions of the Egyptian heat exploring ancient tombs, creating 3D models of reliefs, and mastering Egyptology not from textbooks but through direct engagement with monuments.
Between Natural Risks and Tourism Development: How the Life of Local Communities in the Indian Himalayas Is Changing
In 2024, scientists from HSE University-St Petersburg went on two expeditions to the Indian Himalayas. The second trip finished at the beginning of October, and now, the researchers are summing up its results. Read on to find out what new things they learned about the state of Himachal Pradesh, why floods and earthquakes have increased dramatically, and how local citizens adapt to the growth of tourism in the region.
‘We Have Always Loved You, Sakhalin’: Research Expedition Studies Sociocultural Anthropology of Miners' Working Life in the USSR
Researchers from the School of Foreign Languages and the Group for Historical Research, together with students of the History programme at the HSE University campus in Perm, have come back from an expedition to Sakhalin Island, where they studied Soviet industrial culture and the working life of miners. The expedition participants shared their impressions of their ‘immersion into the past’ and the extraordinary landscapes of the island with the HSE News Service.
Ancient Coins, Handmade Ceramics, and ‘Merch’ for the Red Army—Cultural Artefacts Discovered during Construction of New HSE Building
Rescue archaeologists are playing an active role in the construction project of a new HSE University building in the historical area of Nizhny Novgorod. Their main aim is to ‘find, research, and rescue’ items of archaeological interest, says PhD Igor Chechushkov, Candidate of Historical Sciences. In his interview to the HSE News Service, he speaks about the artefacts discovered at the construction site.
The Earliest Cat on the Northern Silk Road
HSE researchers Irina Arzhantseva and Heinrich Haerke from the Centre of Classical and Oriental Archaeology (Faculty of Humanities) have been involved in the discovery of the earliest domestic cat yet found in northern Eurasia. The presence of Dzhanik (as the archaeologists have begun to call the tomcat) implies that there was a reasonably large settlement with a sedentary population even 200 years before it was surrounded by big walls and was called a town.
Shedding Light on Mysteries of the Past
Michele Minardi, from Italy, holds a PhD in Archaeology from Sydney University and has spent a number of years in investigating Karakalpakstan in Uzbekistan. He has recently joined the team of Centre of Classical and Oriental Archaeology of the Institute for Oriental and Classical Studies as a Research Fellow. We spoke with Michele about his projects, teaching methods and expedition plans.
‘The Sense of Doing Something New Appeals to Me’
Professor Heinrich Haerke, a renowned archaeology expert, has been cooperating with HSE University researchers for a long time. This year he has joined HSE as a Professor at the recently formed Centre for Classical and Oriental Archaeology. He has talked to HSE News Service about his research interests, field projects, and teaching archaeology.
HSE Researchers and Students Discover Burials on Archaeological Expedition
History students and colleagues from the Institute of Archaeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences travelled to an excavation site in the North Caucasus region of southern Russia. HSE News Service spoke with Professor Andrey Vinogradov of the Faculty of Humanities about the burials they discovered, field work, and the joys of archaeology.
HSE Archaeologists Make Significant Discovery during Excavations in Agrigento
In 2019, HSE will begin accepting students to its new Master's programme in Classical and Oriental Archaeology for the first time. Prior to admission, however, prospective students had the opportunity to participate in an archaeological school in Sicily, where they discovered rare bronze phialae dating back to the 6th century BC during the excavations.
HSE Students on Iran Trip: 'It Was Like Flying to the Moon!'
During the annual road expedition 'Cultural Effects of Borders', culture studies students from HSE visited Georgia, Armenia, and – for the first time – Iran. They talked to HSE News about the tastes and colors of Iran, and about how compliments form the foundation of the country's communications culture.